On January 21, 2025, the European Studies Centre hosted a seminar featuring Dr Lucie Qian Xia, Lecturer at the Department of Politics and International Relations, and Dr Dimitar Bechev, Lecturer at the Oxford School of Global and Area Studies, University of Oxford. The discussion was chaired by Othon Anastasakis, Director of the European Studies Centre. The seminar explored the historical, theoretical, and contemporary dimensions of EU-China relations, offering valuable insights into how these two major powers navigate their shared interests and diverging priorities.
EU-China relations: A historical perspective
The roots of EU-China relations date back to 1975, during the height of the Cold War. Xia emphasized that this relationship has always been shaped by a network of institutions, despite the presence of opposing forces. Over the decades, it has evolved into a multifaceted dynamic, as encapsulated by the European Council’s 2019 strategic outlook, which frames China as simultaneously a partner, competitor, and systemic rival. This tripartite characterization reflects the inherent complexity that defines EU-China relations.
China, for its part, has consistently viewed the EU as a major strategic partner, as evidenced by its policy papers in 2003, 2014, and 2018. However, a significant gap in perception persists. While China’s rapid economic rise—driven by Deng Xiaoping’s “reform and opening” policies—has reshaped the global economic order, the EU has struggled to reconcile its economic interdependence with China with growing concerns over China’s geopolitical ambitions. This tension lies at the heart of EU-China relations.Theoretical frameworks: Realism and constructivism
To better understand the complexities of EU-China relations, the seminar explored two theoretical lenses: realism and constructivism. From a realist perspective, the relationship is driven by material interests and domestic needs. Economic and strategic calculations dominate this view, with both sides seeking to maximize their gains while minimizing risks.
In contrast, the constructivist perspective emphasizes the role of norms, perceptions, and emotions. Shared values, such as green sustainability and climate cooperation, play a significant role in shaping the relationship. Xia introduced the concept of collective intentionality from diplomatic studies, which refers to the shared desire among negotiators to reach collaborative agreements. She proposed a framework of “Structure, Substance, and Style” to analyse EU-China relations, highlighting the importance of trade, economic issues, and climate negotiations as the anchors of this relationship.
Trade and Climate: The pillars of engagement
Trade and climate negotiations emerged as the two most critical areas of engagement between the EU and China. The Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI) and the Geographical Indications Agreement (focused on agricultural products) were highlighted as key milestones. These agreements underscore the potential for cooperation, even as geopolitical tensions rise.
Climate diplomacy, in particular, has become a cornerstone of the relationship. The timeline of EU-China climate cooperation—from the 2010 Decarbonisation Action Plan to ongoing dialogues—demonstrates how environmental issues have evolved into a central pillar of engagement. As trade agreements face challenges, climate cooperation remains a resilient and mutually beneficial area of collaboration. This shift reflects the growing recognition that global challenges, such as climate change, require collective action.
The EU’s perspective: Dependency and divergence
Dimitar Bechev provided insights into the EU’s evolving perspective on China. Over the past four decades, China’s integration into the global economy has transformed EU-China relations. During the Eurozone crisis, China’s purchase of European assets (e.g., in Greece) and its role in infrastructure development highlighted its growing influence. Today, the EU is heavily dependent on China in areas such as technology (e.g., 5G), green energy (e.g., photovoltaic panels), and electric vehicles.
However, the EU’s approach to China is not monolithic. While countries like France and Southern European states advocate for a cooperative mind-set, others adopt a more competitive stance. This divergence reflects the complex interplay of national interests within the EU. The challenge lies in balancing these differing perspectives to formulate a coherent and effective EU policy toward China.
The role of the United States
The seminar also addressed the role of the United States in shaping EU-China relations. The Trump administration’s trade policies and the broader US-China rivalry created strong incentives for the EU to maintain a balanced approach. While some expected a shift under the Biden administration, the continuity in US policy toward China has reinforced the need for the EU to assert its strategic autonomy. In either case, the US remains an important player in the dynamics of EU-China relations.
China’s view of Europe: Unity vs division
A key question raised during the seminar was whether China views Europe as a unified entity or as individual member states. Xia argued that China generally perceives Europe as a whole, as reflected in its diplomatic language and strategic documents. However, recent events—such as Lithuania’s engagement with Taiwan—have exposed the challenges of maintaining a unified EU policy toward China. These incidents often trigger reactive, rather than strategic, responses from EU member states, highlighting the fragility of the relationship.
Cooperation and competition in practice
The seminar highlighted several areas where cooperation and competition intersect. For instance, the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and China’s evolving environmental policies present both challenges and opportunities for collaboration. Similarly, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the EU’s Global Gateway initiative could complement each other in addressing global infrastructure needs. Educational programs and cultural exchanges remain a relatively apolitical area of cooperation, fostering mutual understanding and trust.
Q&A and conclusion
The Q&A session further illuminated the complexities of EU-China relations. Participants discussed the perception of China as a systemic rival, which stems from its economic rise, geopolitical ambitions, and actions in regions like Hong Kong and Ukraine. The prospects for the Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI) remain uncertain due to geopolitical tensions, despite political will on the Chinese side to advance the agreement.
Cooperation in modernizing agriculture and addressing climate change offers significant potential for mutual benefit. Collaborative efforts in areas like poverty alleviation and sustainable development could help transcend bilateral tensions. As one participant noted, the EU and China have much to gain from working together on global challenges, even as they navigate their differences.
The seminar underscored the dual nature of EU-China relations, where cooperation and competition coexist in a delicate balance. As Xia aptly summarized, the EU-China relationship is a work in progress, shaped by a complex interplay of structural, substantive, and stylistic factors. Navigating this relationship will require strategic foresight, diplomatic finesse, and a commitment to finding common ground amidst competing interests. In a world increasingly defined by great power rivalry, the EU-China relationship serves as a critical test case for whether cooperation and competition can indeed coexist. The path forward is fraught with challenges, but it also offers opportunities for meaningful collaboration that could benefit not only the EU and China but also the world at large.
EU-China relations: A historical perspective
The roots of EU-China relations date back to 1975, during the height of the Cold War. Xia emphasized that this relationship has always been shaped by a network of institutions, despite the presence of opposing forces. Over the decades, it has evolved into a multifaceted dynamic, as encapsulated by the European Council’s 2019 strategic outlook, which frames China as simultaneously a partner, competitor, and systemic rival. This tripartite characterization reflects the inherent complexity that defines EU-China relations.
China, for its part, has consistently viewed the EU as a major strategic partner, as evidenced by its policy papers in 2003, 2014, and 2018. However, a significant gap in perception persists. While China’s rapid economic rise—driven by Deng Xiaoping’s “reform and opening” policies—has reshaped the global economic order, the EU has struggled to reconcile its economic interdependence with China with growing concerns over China’s geopolitical ambitions. This tension lies at the heart of EU-China relations.Theoretical frameworks: Realism and constructivism
To better understand the complexities of EU-China relations, the seminar explored two theoretical lenses: realism and constructivism. From a realist perspective, the relationship is driven by material interests and domestic needs. Economic and strategic calculations dominate this view, with both sides seeking to maximize their gains while minimizing risks.
In contrast, the constructivist perspective emphasizes the role of norms, perceptions, and emotions. Shared values, such as green sustainability and climate cooperation, play a significant role in shaping the relationship. Xia introduced the concept of collective intentionality from diplomatic studies, which refers to the shared desire among negotiators to reach collaborative agreements. She proposed a framework of “Structure, Substance, and Style” to analyse EU-China relations, highlighting the importance of trade, economic issues, and climate negotiations as the anchors of this relationship.
Trade and Climate: The pillars of engagement
Trade and climate negotiations emerged as the two most critical areas of engagement between the EU and China. The Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI) and the Geographical Indications Agreement (focused on agricultural products) were highlighted as key milestones. These agreements underscore the potential for cooperation, even as geopolitical tensions rise.
Climate diplomacy, in particular, has become a cornerstone of the relationship. The timeline of EU-China climate cooperation—from the 2010 Decarbonisation Action Plan to ongoing dialogues—demonstrates how environmental issues have evolved into a central pillar of engagement. As trade agreements face challenges, climate cooperation remains a resilient and mutually beneficial area of collaboration. This shift reflects the growing recognition that global challenges, such as climate change, require collective action.
The EU’s perspective: Dependency and divergence
Dimitar Bechev provided insights into the EU’s evolving perspective on China. Over the past four decades, China’s integration into the global economy has transformed EU-China relations. During the Eurozone crisis, China’s purchase of European assets (e.g., in Greece) and its role in infrastructure development highlighted its growing influence. Today, the EU is heavily dependent on China in areas such as technology (e.g., 5G), green energy (e.g., photovoltaic panels), and electric vehicles.
However, the EU’s approach to China is not monolithic. While countries like France and Southern European states advocate for a cooperative mind-set, others adopt a more competitive stance. This divergence reflects the complex interplay of national interests within the EU. The challenge lies in balancing these differing perspectives to formulate a coherent and effective EU policy toward China.
The role of the United States
The seminar also addressed the role of the United States in shaping EU-China relations. The Trump administration’s trade policies and the broader US-China rivalry created strong incentives for the EU to maintain a balanced approach. While some expected a shift under the Biden administration, the continuity in US policy toward China has reinforced the need for the EU to assert its strategic autonomy. In either case, the US remains an important player in the dynamics of EU-China relations.
China’s view of Europe: Unity vs division
A key question raised during the seminar was whether China views Europe as a unified entity or as individual member states. Xia argued that China generally perceives Europe as a whole, as reflected in its diplomatic language and strategic documents. However, recent events—such as Lithuania’s engagement with Taiwan—have exposed the challenges of maintaining a unified EU policy toward China. These incidents often trigger reactive, rather than strategic, responses from EU member states, highlighting the fragility of the relationship.
Cooperation and competition in practice
The seminar highlighted several areas where cooperation and competition intersect. For instance, the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and China’s evolving environmental policies present both challenges and opportunities for collaboration. Similarly, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the EU’s Global Gateway initiative could complement each other in addressing global infrastructure needs. Educational programs and cultural exchanges remain a relatively apolitical area of cooperation, fostering mutual understanding and trust.
Q&A and conclusion
The Q&A session further illuminated the complexities of EU-China relations. Participants discussed the perception of China as a systemic rival, which stems from its economic rise, geopolitical ambitions, and actions in regions like Hong Kong and Ukraine. The prospects for the Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI) remain uncertain due to geopolitical tensions, despite political will on the Chinese side to advance the agreement.
Cooperation in modernizing agriculture and addressing climate change offers significant potential for mutual benefit. Collaborative efforts in areas like poverty alleviation and sustainable development could help transcend bilateral tensions. As one participant noted, the EU and China have much to gain from working together on global challenges, even as they navigate their differences.
The seminar underscored the dual nature of EU-China relations, where cooperation and competition coexist in a delicate balance. As Xia aptly summarized, the EU-China relationship is a work in progress, shaped by a complex interplay of structural, substantive, and stylistic factors. Navigating this relationship will require strategic foresight, diplomatic finesse, and a commitment to finding common ground amidst competing interests. In a world increasingly defined by great power rivalry, the EU-China relationship serves as a critical test case for whether cooperation and competition can indeed coexist. The path forward is fraught with challenges, but it also offers opportunities for meaningful collaboration that could benefit not only the EU and China but also the world at large.
By Yangyang Zhao (ESC Research Assistant)
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